Editing Indo-European Languages (section)

== Proto-Indo-European Roots ==
The <u>Proto-Indo-European</u> ('''PIE''') language is the hypothetical common ancestor of the <u>Indo-European</u> language family. Despite the absence of direct records, linguists have reconstructed aspects of PIE based on systematic comparisons of its descendant languages, utilizing the '''comparative method'''. This reconstruction offers insights into its phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon, as well as aspects of the culture and environment of its speakers. The consensus on PIE, while robust in many areas, is still subject to ongoing research and debate. 

PIE is believed to have had a complex system of '''consonants''' and '''vowels''', with distinctions between voiced, voiceless, and aspirated '''stops''', as well as '''sonorants''' (nasals, liquids) and '''sibilants'''. The existence of '''laryngeal''' sounds, which have left their trace primarily in the vowel system of descendant languages, is a significant aspect of PIE phonology that was uncovered through the analysis of anomalies in the phonetic patterns of these languages.

Most scholars now believe there were three distinct laryngeals, which can be written ''H<sub>1</sub>'', ''H<sub>2</sub>'', and ''H<sub>3</sub>''. Of these, ''H<sub>1</sub>'' may ha ve been ''h'' or a '''glottal stop'''; ''H<sub>2</sub>'' was perhaps a '''pharyngeal spirant''' like <u>Arabic</u> ''ḥ'' in ''ḥams'' ‘five’; ''H<sub>3</sub>'', whatever its other features, was probably '''voiced'''. When laryngeals between consonants disappeared a vowel sometimes remained, as in <u>Greek</u> ''stásis'', <u>Sanskrit</u> ''sthitis'', <u>Old English</u> ''stede'' ‘a standing (place)’ from <u>Proto-Indo-European</u> *''stH<sub>2</sub>tis''. Before the advent of the '''laryngeal theory''', a separate <u>Proto-Indo-European</u> vowel ''ə'' (called '''schwa indogermanicum''') was reconstructed to account for these correspondences.

PIE '''nouns''' and '''adjectives''' are reconstructed with a system of '''declensions''', including '''cases''' such as nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and ablative; '''gender''' (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and '''number''' (singular, dual, and plural) distinctions were also present. The PIE verb system is believed to have included '''aspects''' (imperfect versus perfect), '''mood''' (indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative), '''voice''' (active, middle, and possibly passive), and a rich set of conjugations to express '''tense''' (present, past, future).

The reconstructed syntax of PIE suggests a '''flexible word order''' with a tendency towards '''SOV''' (Subject-Object-Verb), similar to many of its ancient descendants such as <u>Sanskrit</u> and <u>Ancient Greek</u>. The use of cases allowed for this flexibility, as syntactic roles were marked on the nouns rather than determined by position.

Reconstruction of the PIE lexicon has provided insights into the culture and environment of its speakers. Terms related to family, animals, nature, agriculture, technology, and the divine suggest a '''pastoral-agrarian''' society. Thus is it supposed that the community knew and talked about dogs (*''ḱwón-''), horses (*''H<sub>1</sub>éḱwo-''), sheep (*''H<sub>3</sub>éwi-''), and almost certainly cows (*''g<sup>w</sup>ów-'') and pigs (*''súH-''), all of which were likely '''domesticated'''. 

At least one '''cereal grain''' was known (*''yéwo-''), and at least one '''metal''' (*''H<sub>2</sub>éyos''). There were '''vehicles''' (*''wóǵho-'') with '''wheels''' (*''k<sup>w</sup>ék<sup>w</sup>lo-''), pulled by teams joined by '''yokes''' (*''yugó-''). '''Honey''' was known, and it probably formed the basis of an alcoholic drink (*''mélit-'', *''médhu'') related to the <u>English</u> '''mead'''. Numerals up through 100 (*''ḱm̥tóm'') were in use. All this suggests a people with a well-developed <u>Neolithic</u> or even <u>Chalcolithic</u> technology.

While more speculative, the reconstruction of PIE vocabulary has led scholars to infer aspects of PIE society, including its '''patrilineal''' and '''patriarchal''' structure, importance of '''kinship''' and '''hospitality''', and practices related to agriculture, animal husbandry, and '''warfare'''. Mythological reconstructions point towards a religion that included '''sky father''' gods, '''earth mother''' goddesses, and a complex set of '''ritual''' practices.
{| class="wikitable"
!Number
!'''Proposed PIE Reconstruction'''
|-
|one
|*Hoi-no-/*Hoi-wo-/*Hoi-k(ʷ)o-; *sem-
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Hoi(H)nos ; sem-/sm̥-
|-
|two
|*d(u)wo-
<nowiki>*</nowiki>du̯oh
|-
|three
|*trei- ''(full grade)'' / *tri- ''(zero grade)''
<nowiki>*</nowiki>trei̯es
|-
|four
|*kʷetwor- ''(o-grade)'' / *kʷetur- ''(zero grade)''
<nowiki>*</nowiki>kʷétu̯ōr
|-
|five
|*penkʷe
|-
|six
|*s(w)eḱs; ''originally perhaps'' *weḱs
<nowiki>*</nowiki>(s)u̯éks
|-
|seven
|*septḿ̥
<nowiki>*</nowiki>séptm̥
|-
|eight
|*oḱtō, *oḱtou ''or'' *heḱtō, *heḱtou
<nowiki>*</nowiki>heḱteh
|-
|nine
|*(h)newn̥
<nowiki>*</nowiki>(h₁)néun
|-
|ten
|*déḱm̥(t)
<nowiki>*</nowiki>déḱm̥t
|}
Rather than specifically 'one hundred,' *''ḱm̥tóm'' (*dḱm̥tóm) may originally have meant 'a large number.'

The reference to '''grade''' relates to the '''ablaut''' system, a type of vowel '''gradation''' that occurs in the root of a word. Ablaut is a fundamental aspect of PIE and many of its descendant languages, affecting how words are '''inflected''' and how their related forms are derived. The concept of grade in PIE linguistics refers to the variations in the root vowel that occur in different forms of a word, often corresponding to grammatical or semantic changes. There are typically three main grades recognized in PIE ablaut patterns:

* <u>Full Grade</u> (E-Grade or O-Grade): Includes the presence of a full vowel, either *e or *o, in the root of the word. It is often seen in the basic form or "strong" cases of a noun or the present tense of a verb. For example, the *e in *trei- ("three") represents a full grade.
* <u>Zero Grade</u>: The vowel of the root is absent or reduced, often resulting in the contraction of surrounding consonants. It occurs in various grammatical forms, such as in certain noun cases or in verb conjugations. The absence of the vowel in *tri- (a reduced form of 'three') and *kʷetur- ('four') illustrates the zero grade.
* <u>Lengthened Grade</u>: This involves the lengthening of the vowel in the root, which can appear in certain grammatical contexts or to indicate a semantic difference. It's represented by ē or ō in reconstructions.

The ablaut system is one reason for the complexity of PIE verb '''conjugations''' and noun '''declensions''', as well as the formation of various grammatical '''moods''' and '''aspects'''.