Editing Archaic Greece (section)

==== ''Neolithic in Graecia (7000 BCE to 3000 BCE)'' ====
'''Agriculture''' was practiced in parts of the <u>Aegean</u> area by the 7th millennium BCE. First farm and stock-rearing settlements were situated in coastal or nearby areas, lowland or hilly regions, close to freshwater sources. Most were open settlements with some cave-dwelling recorded. Organization and architectural structure varied by time period and region. 

During the <u>Early Neolithic</u>, settlements consisted of '''huts''' with walls made of posts, while from the <u>Middle Neolithic</u> onwards houses with stone foundations and walls from '''mud bricks''' (unfired bricks from a mixture of clay and hay) were built. Houses were one-room or additionally possessed an open or closed porch ('''megaron-type''') and were built independently of each other, on the ground floor as a rule, while there are indications that two-story dwellings existed as well. Several settlements were surrounded by ditches or stone enclosures ('''Argissa''', '''Dimini'''), whose function is not entirely clear: for defense or to demarcate the limits of the settlement. Open settlements had usually the form of a low hill, 2-4 metres high, with a diameter of 100-200 metres. In the <u>Thessalian</u> plain they were known by the name '''magoula''', while in <u>Macedonia</u> they were given the term '''toumba''' which is a corruption of the word '''tymvos''' (tomb). These hills were not natural elevations of the ground but were created by successive habitation layers on the same spot over hundreds or even thousands of years. Size ranged from 500-6,000 square metres, and numbered 100-300 individuals, with the extended family as the basic unit.

Early <u>Neolithic</u> agriculture in <u>Greece</u> primarily involved the cultivation of '''cereals''', '''legumes''', and other crops. The technology and practices for cultivating '''grapes''' and '''olives''' were probably introduced or developed during the later <u>Neolithic</u> or early <u>Bronze Age</u>. The domestication of grapes for wine production is believed to have originated in the <u>Near East</u>, possibly as early as 6000 BCE. Grapes were likely introduced to <u>Greece</u> and the <u>Aegean</u> region during the early <u>Bronze Age</u> (circa 3000 BCE). The production of wine in <u>Greece</u> is thought to have begun during the early <u>Bronze Age</u>, becoming more widespread and sophisticated by the <u>Minoan</u> and <u>Mycenaean</u> periods (circa 2000-1100 BCE). Olive cultivation also likely originated in the <u>Near East</u>. 

The domestication of the olive tree for oil production is thought to have occurred around 4000 BCE or later. Olives were probably introduced to <u>Greece</u> during the early <u>Bronze Age</u>. Olive oil production in Greece became significant by the Minoan and Mycenaean periods, with evidence of large-scale production and trade. Wine and olive oil became crucial commodities in trade, contributing significantly to the economy of ancient Greek city-states. '''Amphorae''' used for transporting wine and olive oil are common archaeological finds. Like in <u>Anatolia</u> and <u>Palestine</u>, the earliest stage seems to be agriculture without pottery, as at '''Thessaly''' and '''Knossos''' in <u>Crete</u>. 

Appears to be the first inhabitation of <u>Crete</u>, probably reached by sea from <u>W Anatolia</u>. Folk movements likely brought eastern influences to indigenous populations, including agricultural techniques. The <u>Aegean</u> area was ideal for human habitation and was reminiscent of the climates of regions immigrants likely came from (coastal <u>Anatolia</u>, <u>Syria</u>, <u>Palestine</u>). Olive and vine were abundant, producing oil and wine that were staples of the <u>Mediterranean</u> diet. Water was abundant in early times where forests when more extensive.

'''Olive oil''' was an essential '''preservative''' in ancient times; it was used to store and preserve food, especially cheese and meats, in a process known as '''confit'''. Submerging food in olive oil could keep it from spoiling in the absence of modern refrigeration techniques. Olive oil held significant '''religious importance''' in ancient Greek culture as well; it was used in rituals, offerings to gods, and anointing ceremonies. This ritualistic use necessitated a substantial supply of olive oil. Olive oil was also used medicinally and cosmetically. It served as a '''base''' for ointments, was used in massages, and as a skin and hair conditioner; these uses would have contributed to its high demand. Olive oil was used as '''fuel''' for lamps before the widespread use of electricity.  Even with a focus on roasting and slow cooking, olive oil would have been a versatile ingredient, used for basting meats or flavoring and moistening food during the cooking process.

Evidence from archaeological sites suggests the use of '''clay cooking pots''', which were ideal for slow cooking. This method retains moisture and flavor, essential for cooking with limited seasonings. '''Bread''' was a staple, and the use of large clay ovens for baking is well-documented. Grains like wheat and barley were the primary ingredients; grains and olives were processed using stone '''grinders''' and presses, a technique that was efficient but labor-intensive. 

The Minoans are believed to have had a predominantly '''vegetarian''' diet, supplemented by dairy products and occasionally meat. Food offerings to gods, seen in frescoes, indicate a ritualistic aspect to food consumption, possibly influencing what was deemed appropriate to eat. Mycenaeans were more reliant on cooking methods like roasting and boiling, possibly due to different culinary tastes and available resources. Evidence of '''wine''' production suggests a significant role in the diet, potentially used in cooking as well. Unlike the Minoans, the Mycenaeans consumed more meat, possibly due to their stronger emphasis on pastoral farming. The Mycenaean culture's involvement in trade and warfare could have introduced new foodstuffs and cooking methods, diversifying their diet compared to the more isolated Minoans.

In the earliest days, agricultural communities spread across virtually every part of <u>Greece</u>. Pottery was made by hand; they ground stone into sharp-edged tools axes, adzes, and chisels. They cultivated wheat, barley, oats, millet, lentils, and peas, supplementing wild grapes, pears, nuts, and honey.  Inhabitants continued to hunt and fish, and also raised cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. Arrowheads of chipped stone were used on the mainland and in the <u>Cyclades</u> but none recorded in <u>Crete</u>; bone points may have served to tip arrows there. Long range '''slings''' and clay sling '''pellets''' made in <u>Thessaly</u>, suitable when beach pebbles were not available.

In Crete, clubs were armed with stone heads (as in <u>Egypt</u> and the <u>Near East</u>).  Houses with '''rectangular rooms''' attested at '''Knossos''' (<u>Crete</u>), '''Saliagos''' (<u>Cyclades</u>), '''Nea Nikomedia''' (<u>Macedonia</u>). Some may have preferred '''circular huts''' (similar to those from <u>Egypt</u>, <u>Syria</u>, and <u>Cyprus</u>). From the <u>Middle Neolithic</u>, pottery seems to have become a specialized productive process in a settlement (pottery workshops in '''Sesklo''' and '''Dimini'''). 

Specialization also involved the production of specific classes of '''pottery''' and their trading in surrounding areas. Through the <u>Early</u> and <u>Middle Neolithic</u>, extended multi-generational families lived in one or more neighboring houses, that formed households sharing hearths and ovens situated in open spaces for common use, in between the houses. These households practiced a mixed farming and stock-rearing economy. Production was shared and did not allow for economic differentiation and subsequently social stratification. The social roles in each community were defined on the basis of gender, age, kinship and participation in communal productive processes.  Female importance seems to have been stressed, at least at a symbolic level.

From the beginning of the <u>Late Neolithic</u> an increase in population has been observed, with subsequent changes in the number and the inner organization of settlements, as well as in economy. In architecture, large, rectangular, '''megaroid''' and '''apsidal''' buildings were used, capable of housing populous families. Hearths and ovens ceased to be commonly used and were constructed in the interior of houses.  In economy there was specialization in production (for example, in pottery and jewelry of '''Spondylus''' seashell), while at the same time cultural and commercial exchanges developed.

* '''Sesklo Culture''' (7000 - 5000 BCE) was an important <u>Neolithic</u> culture in the region of <u>Thessaly</u> and is one of the earliest signs of <u>Neolithic</u> settlement in <u>Europe</u>. Named after the site of '''Sesklo''' near '''Volos''', this culture provides significant insights into the early <u>Neolithic</u> period in the <u>Aegean</u>. Notable for its well-organized and substantial settlements; Sesklo architecture included both small, circular structures and larger, rectangular buildings, often constructed with mud bricks and wooden frames. Sesklo pottery is characterized by its fine quality, with polished surfaces often decorated with painted designs in red and white. The motifs included geometric patterns and, in later phases, more complex designs. The culture also produced figurines, typically fashioned from clay, which may have had religious or ceremonial significance. The economy was primarily agrarian, with evidence of '''cultivation''' of wheat and barley, and the keeping of '''livestock''' such as sheep, goats, and cattle. The presence of grinding stones and sickle blades suggests advancements in agricultural practices. The burial practices of the Sesklo culture included both '''inhumation''' and '''cremation''', often with grave goods, indicating a belief in an afterlife and the presence of social stratification. Stone tools were common, including flint blades and obsidian from the island of '''Melos''', indicating long-distance trade networks. There is evidence of weaving, as indicated by the presence of loom weights in settlements.
* '''Dimini Culture''' (5000 - 4500 BCE) is named for the eponymous site of '''Dimini''', located near the city of Volos in <u>Thessaly</u>, is one of the most important <u>Neolithic</u> sites in the region. The Dimini site itself was a significant settlement featuring a series of <u>Neolithic</u> houses and later, during the <u>Bronze Age</u>, a <u>Mycenaean</u> palace. The Neolithic settlement was characterized by circular and rectangular buildings, often with a central '''courtyard''', indicative of communal living. Dimini pottery is known for its distinctive style, including red and white painted decoration, with intricate designs and patterns. Primarily agrarian, with cultivated crops and domesticated animals.
* '''Rachmani Culture''' (~5000 BCE) in <u>northern Greece</u>, was known for its specific pottery styles. The culture is known from archaeological sites like '''Rachmani''', where excavations have revealed aspects of its material culture. Finds include pottery, often with distinctive decorations, and artifacts that give insights into the daily life and practices of the people. Settlements from this period typically consisted of small communities with houses made from mud bricks and wood. The economy was likely based on agriculture, with the cultivation of crops and domestication of animals. The culture shows continuity from earlier Neolithic traditions in the region but also exhibits some developments that point towards the upcoming Bronze Age.
* '''Lianokladi Culture''' (~5000 BCE) in <u>central Greece</u>, again distinct in its pottery and settlement patterns.  Around the same time as the Rachmani culture and in some ways similar to Rachmani; the Lianokladi culture is known through its material remains, particularly pottery. The artifacts from this culture provide insights into the technological and artistic capabilities of its people. The settlements were likely small villages, with agriculture being the primary means of subsistence. Evidence suggests that these communities were well-adapted to their environment and had established effective farming and animal husbandry practices. The pottery and other artifacts from Lianokladi show a culture that was part of the broader Neolithic world of the region, with local variations in style and technique. The farming economy of the Late and Final Neolithic improved with the growth of exchange networks in the Aegean and the Balkans and specialization in production (pottery, jewelry of Spondylus sea-shell). These developments brought about changes in communal production and allowed new social values to develop. From the Late Neolithic ΙΙa there was specialization in the production of jewelry from Spondylus seashell (Dimini), which spread as far as the Balkans and Central Europe. From the Cyclades obsidian for the manufacture of sharp tools was distributed

As Greece transitioned from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, there were cultures that exhibited characteristics of both periods. These '''transitional cultures''' might not always have distinct names but are identified through their archaeological layers in various sites, showing a mix of late Neolithic and early Bronze Age traits. Objects of social prestige, owned only by a few members of the settlement: leaf-shaped arrow heads of Melian obsidian, ring idol pendants, jewelry of gold and silver, jewelry of Spondylus sea-shell, and copper tools. 

Ditches and stone enclosures that protected the settlements during the late <u>Neolithic</u> phases were communal works. From the end of the Neolithic and especially during the <u>Final Neolithic</u>, the practice of metallurgy in the <u>Aegean</u> for the manufacture of gold and silver jewelry and tools have been observed (ring idol pendants, daggers, awls, chisels, spatulas, axes). The acquisition of metals but also of technology formed part of the cultural exchanges. Many place-names throughout the <u>Aegean</u> - notably ones ending in '''-nt''' and '''-ss''', such as '''Corinth''' and '''Knossos''' - seem to reflect a time when a group of related languages with probable <u>Anatolian</u> affinities was spoken there before the introduction of <u>Greek</u>. A large number of words came to be adopted into Greek from this earlier language group.