Editing Hellenic Languages

The Hellenic language family is somewhat unusual, in the way that the <u>Greek</u> language occupies such a central focus for the family. Most classifications consider it to be the ''only'' language in the family, but some consider it to also contain a few other varieties that are different enough to be differentiated as separate languages (though this is always with varying degrees of controversy). 

The Hellenic languages might have been most closely related to ancient <u>Macedonian</u> (either an ancient <u>Greek</u> dialect or a separate related language) and <u>Phrygian</u>, but neither are documented well enough to permit realistic comparison. Among modern languages, <u>Greek</u> is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with <u>Armenian</u> and <u>[[Indo-Iranian Languages|Indo-Iranian]]</u> languages.

== Proto-Greek ==
Proto-Greek (or <u>Proto-Hellenic</u>) is the last common ancestor of all varieties of <u>Ancient Greek</u>, coming along with new populations entering the region ~2200-1900 BCE. By ~1700 BCE, this ancestral language had differentiated into a southern and northern pair. It was only subsequent to this that the dialects further differentiated. <u>Proto-Greek</u> is believed to have developed in a region bordering related languages; <u>Proto-Indo-Iranian</u> in the east, and <u>Proto-Armenian</u> and <u>Proto-Phrygian</u> in the west. Proto-Greek speakers may have migrated from the <u>Black Sea</u> region just as the transition to the <u>Bronze Age</u> occurred. 

The main body of <u>Proto-Greek</u> speakers settled in a region that included southwestern <u>Illyria</u>, <u>Epirus</u>, northwestern <u>Thessaly</u> and western <u>Macedonia</u>. Proto-Greek is a '''centrum''' language (described further in [[Indo-European Languages]]), and we see a '''vocalization''' of word-initial '''laryngeals''' (''y-'' to ''dy-'' > ''dz-),'' and a loss of final non-nasal stop consonants (for example, <u>Latin</u> ''quid'' / <u>Sanskrit</u> ''cid'' compare to <u>Greek</u> ''ti''. In scenarios where /m/ is the final phoneme, it switches to /n/. 

<u>Greek</u> is unique among <u>Indo-European</u> languages in reflecting the replacement of PIE's three laryngeals with distinct vowels. Most <u>Indo-European</u> languages can be traced back to a dialectal variety in which all three laryngeals had merged and were replaced by a single vowel, but <u>Greek</u> is distinct.

<u>Proto-Greek</u> numerals were derived directly from <u>Indo-European</u>.

* '''one''': *''héns'' (masculine), *''hmía'' (feminine) (> <abbr>Myc.</abbr> ''e-me'' /heméi/ (dative); <abbr>Att.</abbr>/<abbr>Ion.</abbr> εἷς (ἑνός), μία, ''heîs'' (''henos''), ''mía'')
* '''two''': *''dúwō'' (> <abbr>Myc.</abbr> ''du-wo'' /dúwoː/; <abbr>Hom.</abbr> δύω, ''dúō''; <abbr>Att.</abbr>-<abbr>Ion.</abbr> δύο, ''dúo'')
* '''three''': *''tréyes'' (> <abbr>Myc.</abbr> ''ti-ri'' /trins/; <abbr>Att.</abbr>/<abbr>Ion.</abbr> τρεῖς, ''treîs''; <abbr>Lesb.</abbr> τρής, ''trḗs''; <abbr>Cret.</abbr> τρέες, ''trées'')
* '''four''': nominative *''kʷétwores'', genitive *''kʷeturṓn'' (> <abbr>Myc.</abbr> ''qe-to-ro-we'' /kʷétroːwes/ "four-eared"; <abbr>Att.</abbr> τέτταρες, ''téttares''; <abbr>Ion.</abbr> τέσσερες, ''tésseres''; <abbr>Boeot.</abbr> πέτταρες, ''péttares''; <abbr>Thess.</abbr> πίτταρες, ''píttares''; <abbr>Lesb.</abbr> πίσυρες, ''písures''; <abbr>Dor.</abbr> τέτορες, ''tétores'')
* '''five''': *''pénkʷe'' (> <abbr>Att.</abbr>-<abbr>Ion.</abbr> πέντε, ''pénte''; <abbr>Lesb.</abbr>, <abbr>Thess.</abbr> πέμπε, ''pémpe'')
* '''six''': *''hwéks'' (> <abbr>Att.</abbr> ἕξ, ''héks''; <abbr>Dor.</abbr> ϝέξ, ''wéks'')
* '''seven''': *''heptə́'' (> <abbr>Att.</abbr> ἑπτά, ''heptá'')
* '''eight''': *''oktṓ'' (> <abbr>Att.</abbr> ὀκτώ, ''oktṓ'')
* '''nine''': *''ennéwə'' (> <abbr>Att.</abbr> ἐννέα, ''ennéa''; <abbr>Dor.</abbr> ἐννῆ, ''ennê'')
* '''ten''': *''dékə'' (> <abbr>Att.</abbr> δέκα, ''déka'')
* '''hundred''': *''hekətón'' (> <abbr>Att.</abbr> ἑκατόν, ''hekatón'')
* '''thousand''': *''kʰéhliyoi'' (> <abbr>Att.</abbr> χίλιοι, ''khílioi'')

== Ancient Greek Dialects ==
In the <u>Hellenistic period</u>, the dialect now known as <u>Koine Greek</u> became the '''lingua franca''' across <u>Greek</u>-speaking regions and overtook almost all other dialects; it arose first within the armies of '''Alexander''' the Great. Before its development, a number of now-defunct dialects were pervasive across the region, though there is some dispute as to how they are classified geographically and/or temporally. 

=== Mycenean ===
The earliest known dialect was <u>Mycenean Greek</u>, which occupied the southern and eastern parts of <u>Greece</u> and is attested from Linear B tablets of ~1500-1100 BCE. Most of the written evidence comes from the palace complex at '''Knossos''' in <u>Central Crete</u>, and '''Pylos''' (in the <u>southwest Peloponnese</u>), but some additional proofs have been discovered at '''Mycenae''' (in <u>Argolis</u>), '''Tiryns''' (in <u>Argolis</u>), '''Thebes''' (in <u>Boeotia</u>), and '''Chania''' (in <u>Western Crete</u>).

Mycenean was written in '''Linear B''' script, an adaptation to an earlier <u>Cretan</u> script ('''Linear A''', which was developed for an undeciphered pre-Indo-European language of <u>Crete</u>, called <u>Minoan</u>). Because it was adapted from a script written to represent a wholly different language, many sounds in the Mycenean phonemic inventory were not represented in Linear B. In particular, it only represents '''open syllables''' (where the syllable ends in a vowel), and <u>Mycenean Greek</u> freely used '''closed syllables''' (ending with consonants). For example, the consonants ''l'', ''m'', ''n'', ''r'', ''s'' are omitted at the end of a syllable or before another consonant. 𐀞𐀲, ''pa-ta'' is ''panta'' (all); 𐀏𐀒, ''ka-ko'' is ''khalkos'' (copper).
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="8" |Phonology of <u>Mycenean Greek</u>
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Type
! rowspan="2" |Bilabial
! rowspan="2" |Dental
! rowspan="2" |Palatal
! colspan="2" |Velar
! rowspan="2" |Glottal
|-
!central
!labialized
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|n
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |Stop
!<small>voiceless</small>
|p
|t
|ts*
|k
|kʷ
|
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|b
|d
|dz*
|ɡ
|ɡʷ
|
|-
!<small>aspirated</small>
|pʰ
|tʰ
|
|kʰ
|kʰʷ
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Fricative
|
|s
|
|
|
|h
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|
|
|j
|
|w
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Trill
|
|r
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Lateral
|
|l
|
|
|
|
|}
In later <u>ancient Greek</u> varieties, '''labialized velar''' consonants (/kʷ, ɡʷ, kʰʷ/) were replaced with '''labials''' /b, p, pʰ/, '''dentals''' /d, t, tʰ/, or '''velars''' /ɡ k kʰ/, depending on the context and the dialect. For example, 𐀦𐀄𐀒𐀫, ''qo-u-ko-ro'' is ''gʷoukoloi'' (classical βουκόλοι ''boukóloi'', cowherds). There were at least five vowels /a, e, i, o, u/, which could be both short and long.

Nouns likely '''decline''' for 7 '''cases''': nominative, genitive, accusative, dative, vocative, instrumental and locative; 3 '''genders''': masculine, feminine, neuter; and 3 '''numbers''': singular, dual, plural. The last two cases had merged with other cases by the era of <u>Classical Greek</u>. In <u>Koine Greek</u>, only nominative, accusative, genitive and vocative remain as separate cases with their own morphological markings. Adjectives '''agree''' with nouns in case, gender, and number.

Verbs probably conjugate for 3 '''tenses''': past, present, future; 3 '''aspects''': perfect, perfective, imperfective; 3 '''numbers''': singular, dual, plural; 4 '''moods''': indicative, imperative, subjunctive, optative; 3 '''voices''': active, middle, passive; 3 '''persons''': first, second, third; infinitives, and verbal adjectives.

While the use of <u>Mycenaean Greek</u> may have ceased with the fall of the Mycenaean mainland core, some traces of it are found in the later <u>Greek</u> dialects. <u>Arcadocypriot Greek</u> is believed to be rather close to <u>Mycenaean Greek</u>. Arcadocypriot was spoken in <u>Arcadia</u> (central Peloponnese), and in <u>Cyprus</u>. Both have similarities to <u>Pamphylian</u> as well. 

Aside from <u>Hittite</u>, <u>Ancient Greek</u> is the oldest attested written <u>Indo-European</u> language. In Mycenean times, speakers of the western-oriented variant (ancestors of the later <u>Dorian Greeks</u> and related peoples) were spoken around the <u>Pindus Mountains</u> (which bisects <u>Western Greece</u> from the rest of the continent along a NE/SW line to the <u>Peloponnese</u>). In <u>Eastern Thessaly</u>, <u>Boeotia</u>, <u>Attica</u>, and the <u>Peloponnesus</u> and on certain <u>Aegean</u> islands (notably <u>Crete</u>), only varieties of <u>Greek</u> other than <u>West Greek</u> were spoken.  

=== Arcadocypriot Greek ===
At the time of the great <u>Mycenaean</u> expansion, a dialect with a high degree of uniformity was spoken both in <u>Cyprus</u> and the <u>Peloponnese</u> but at some point, <u>West Greek</u> speakers intruded upon the <u>Peloponnese</u> and occupied its coastal states but made no significant inroads into <u>Arcadia</u>. The remnants of the original dialect became the speakers of <u>Arcadocypriot Greek</u>.

Arcadocypriot (sometimes called <u>southern Achaean</u>) is closely related to the <u>Mycenean</u> dialect recorded in '''Linear B''' inscriptions in <u>Crete</u>, but it was written using an innovative '''Cypriot syllabary''' (from ~1000 BCE) until it too was replaced by the '''Greek alphabet'''. 

Compared to the <u>Arcadocypriot</u> dialect, <u>Mycenaean Greek</u> preserved more archaic consonantal forms, such as the retention of /w/ ('''digamma'''), which is often lost in later <u>Greek</u> dialects (including <u>Arcadocypriot</u>). The vowel system and '''diphthongs''' in <u>Mycenaean</u> show earlier forms that undergo various changes by the time of the <u>Arcadocypriot</u> dialects. For example, the long ā ('''Alpha''') in <u>Mycenaean</u> often corresponds to a long ō ('''Omega''') in <u>Classical Greek</u>, a change that is inconsistently applied in <u>Arcadocypriot</u>. 

While both dialects share many similarities in verb '''conjugations''' and noun '''declensions''' due to their common heritage, there are differences in specific forms and uses. <u>Arcadocypriot</u> shows developments in the morphology that are more aligned with later <u>Classical Greek</u> forms, whereas <u>Mycenaean</u> retains more archaic features. The '''pronominal''' system of <u>Mycenaean Greek</u> displays forms that are often more archaic than those in later dialects, including <u>Arcadocypriot</u>. Additionally, the use and frequency of certain particles and prepositions differ, reflecting changes in the language over time. 

Given the nature of the Linear B records, which are largely administrative and inventory lists, much less is known about the '''syntax''' of <u>Mycenaean Greek</u> compared to the more extensive literary and inscriptive evidence available for <u>Arcadocypriot</u>. However, it is reasonable to assume that there were syntactical evolutions from the <u>Mycenaean</u> period to the later dialects.

There are differences in '''vocabulary''', partly reflecting the time gap between the two and the different cultural and technological contexts. <u>Mycenaean Greek</u> contains words related to palace administration, trade, and production that are not as prevalent in later periods. <u>Arcadocypriot</u>, especially on <u>Cyprus</u>, was influenced by its geographical context, including contact with non-Greek languages, which introduced new words and meanings missing from <u>Mycenaean Greek</u>.

=== Aeolic Greek ===
Also known as <u>Aeolian</u>, <u>Aeolic Greek</u> consisted of a set of related dialects spoken mainly in <u>Boeotia</u> (<u>NE Peloponnese</u>), <u>Thessaly</u> (<u>E Greece</u>), <u>Lesbos</u> (in the <u>Aegean Sea</u>), and in the <u>Greek</u> colonies of <u>Aeolis</u> in (coastal <u>NW Anatolia</u>). This dialect is best known for the works of '''[[Sappho]]''', famed <u>Lesbian</u> poet, as well as her contemporary '''[[Alcaeus]]''', also of '''Mytilene'''.  

Aeolic '''poetry''' mostly uses four classical '''metres''' known as the '''Aeolics''': '''Glyconic''' (the most basic form of Aeolic line), '''hendecasyllabic''' verse, the '''Sapphic stanza''', and '''Alcaic stanza'''. 

* The <u>Sapphic Stanza</u> consists of four '''lines''': three identical lines called '''Sapphic hendecasyllables''' followed by an '''Adonic''' line. The typical pattern for a Sapphic hendecasyllable line is: Long, short, -, long, -, long, short, short, long, -, -. This meter was prominently used by Sappho in her lyric poetry and is effective for expressing personal emotions and themes.
* The <u>Alcaic Stanza</u> consists of four lines with varying metrical patterns; the first two lines are '''Alcaic hendecasyllables''', the third is an '''Alcaic enneasyllable''', and the fourth is an '''Alcaic decasyllable'''. The typical pattern is more complex and varies between the lines but generally features a mix of long and short syllables with a specific rhythmic cadence. This meter was used by Alcaeus and later by Roman poets like Horace. It is well-suited for political, philosophical, and personal themes.
* The <u>Glyconic Metre</u> is a shorter form that can stand alone or be part of larger stanzas. A simple glyconic line follows a pattern similar to: Long, -, long, short, short, long, -, -.  This metre is named after the poet '''[[Glycon]]''' and is used for a variety of themes. It's often found in combination with other metrical lines in complex stanzas.
* The <u>Asclepiadean Metres</u> is a family of metrical forms that include several variations. A common Asclepiadean line might follow a pattern such as: Long, short, short, long, -, long, short, short, long, -, -. Named after the poet '''[[Asclepiades]]''' of Samos, these metres are versatile and can accommodate a wide range of moods and subjects. 
<u>Proto-Greek</u> utilized a labialized /''*kʷ''/'','' but it was changed to ''/p/'' in the <u>Aeolic</u> dialects, while the other <u>Greek</u> dialects changed it to ''/t/'' before /''e/'' and ''/i/''. <u>PIE</u> *'''kʷ'''etwores → <u>Lesbian</u> '''''p'''ísures'', <u>Boeotian</u> '''''p'''éttares'' ~ <u>Attic</u> '''t'''éttares, Ionic '''''t'''ésseres'', <u>Doric</u> '''''t'''étores'' (<u>English</u>: four). This shift is an example of how <u>Aeolic</u> often preserved the '''labial''' component of the sound, a feature that can be traced back to its <u>Indo-European</u> roots. Aeolic shows a tendency towards the simplification of '''diphthongs'''; <u>Proto-Greek</u> *ai became <u>Aeolic</u> *ā. Similarly, *oi became *ū in <u>Aeolic</u>, reflecting a broader tendency towards vowel modification. <u>Aeolic</u> dialects, especially <u>Lesbian</u>, exhibit '''psilosis''' (the loss of the /h/ sound at the start of words) where other dialects retained it. This resulted in a smoother pronunciation in Aeolic compared to the aspirated sounds in other Greek dialects.

Unlike in <u>Ionic</u> and <u>Attic</u> dialects, <u>Aeolic</u> retains the /s/ sound in clusters where it precedes /m/, /n/, /l/, or /r/. <u>Proto-Greek</u> *smikros becomes μικρός (mikrós) in <u>Aeolic</u>, contrasting with <u>Ionic</u> and <u>Attic</u> μικρός (mikrós), where the /s/ is dropped. <u>Aeolic</u> sometimes retains '''aspirate clusters''' that are simplified in other dialects, illustrating the conservative tendency in its phonology.

Aeolic uses -ντι (-nti) for the '''third person plural''' ending of verbs, a feature that is archaic and preserved from earlier stages of <u>Proto-Greek</u>, in contrast with the more common -ουσι (-ousi) ending seen in other dialects. <u>Aeolic</u> dialects have distinctive uses of the '''definite article''', often reflecting older forms or employing the article in ways that differ from other <u>Greek</u> dialects. There are unique '''pronouns''' and '''particles''' in <u>Aeolic</u>, some of which preserve older <u>Indo-European</u> forms that have disappeared or changed significantly in other dialects.

<u>Aeolic</u>, particularly in its '''poetic forms''', displays a more flexible word order compared to the relatively more fixed order in classical <u>Attic</u> prose. This allowed for a variety of expressive and metrical possibilities. Aeolic sometimes exhibits distinctive uses or absences of certain '''prepositions''', reflecting both its geographic isolation and its preservation of older linguistic forms.

=== Doric Greek ===
'''Doric''' (or <u>Dorian</u>; Δωρισμός, ''Dōrismós''), also known as <u>West Greek</u>, was a group of closely related western dialects spoken by semi-nomadic <u>Greek</u> speakers living around the <u>Pindus Mountains</u>; its varieties are divided into the <u>Doric</u> and <u>Northwest Doric</u> subgroups. Doric was spoken in a vast area, including northern <u>Greece</u> (<u>Acarnania</u>, <u>Aetolia</u>, <u>Epirus</u>, western and eastern <u>Locris</u>, <u>Phocis</u>, <u>Doris</u>, and possibly <u>Macedonia</u>), most of the <u>Peloponnese</u> excluding <u>Arcadia</u> (<u>Achaea</u>, <u>Elis</u>, <u>Messenia</u>, <u>Laconia</u>, <u>Argolis</u>, <u>Aegina</u>, <u>Corinth</u>, and <u>Megara</u>), the southern <u>Aegean</u> (<u>Kythira</u>, <u>Milos</u>, <u>Thera</u>, <u>Crete</u>, <u>Karpathos</u>, and <u>Rhodes</u>), as well as the colonies of some of those regions in <u>Cyrene</u>, <u>Magna Graecia</u> (<u>Syracuse</u>, <u>Corinth</u>, and <u>Tarentum</u>), the <u>Black Sea</u>, the <u>Ionian Sea</u> and the <u>Adriatic Sea</u>. It was also spoken in the <u>Greek</u> sanctuaries of '''Dodona''', '''Delphi''', and '''Olympia''', as well as at the four <u>Panhellenic festivals:</u> the '''Isthmian''', '''Nemean''', '''Pythian''', and '''Olympic Games'''. The only living descendant of the (<u>Laconian</u>) <u>Doric</u> dialects is <u>Tsakonian</u>, though it is critically endangered, with only a few hundred (mostly elderly) speakers left.

In <u>Doric Greek</u>, the long vowel /ā/ ('''Alpha''') often remains unchanged, contrasting with its evolution to /ē/ ('''Eta''') in <u>Ionic</u> and <u>Attic</u> dialects. This conservative aspect of <u>Doric</u> is emblematic of its preservation of many archaic features. <u>Doric</u> is known for the retention of the sibilant sound /s/ in positions where it becomes /h/ or is dropped in other dialects. This includes cases where /s/ appears before a consonant, maintaining a more archaic phonological feature. The dialect set frequently exhibits the change of /e/ to /a/ in certain environments, a phenomenon known as <u>Doric</u> '''aorism'''. <u>Doric</u> also shows a preference for retaining the '''digamma''' /w/ in positions where it is lost in most other <u>Greek</u> dialects, highlighting another conservative trait.

<u>Doric</u> dialects typically use -ντι (-nti) for the '''third person plural''' ending in verbs, mirroring an archaic feature also observed in <u>Aeolic Greek</u>. This contrasts with the -ουσι (-ousi) ending prevalent in <u>Ionic</u> and <u>Attic</u>. <u>Doric Greek</u> displays unique features in noun '''declension''', including specific forms of the '''genitive case'''. For instance, the genitive singular of first declension nouns often ends in -ας (-as) instead of the -ης (-ēs) found in <u>Attic Greek</u>. The use of the '''definite article''' in <u>Doric</u> can exhibit archaic forms and uses, distinguishing it from other <u>Greek</u> dialects through its specific syntactic and morphological applications. The syntax of <u>Doric Greek</u>, while less documented in comparison to <u>Ionic</u> and <u>Attic</u> due to the nature of surviving texts, likely featured variations reflective of its geographic diversity and the colloquial use in various regions. The syntax in '''choral lyric poetry''', inscriptions, and the prose of some <u>Doric</u> regions would have shown distinctive patterns aligning with the dialect's phonological and morphological traits.

Doric Greek is characterized by a distinct '''vocabulary''', with numerous words and forms that are either unique to the dialect or used in senses different from those in other dialects. This includes specialized terms related to local flora, fauna, agriculture, social institutions, and religious practices, underscoring the dialect's rich regional character. The dialect set also contributed significantly to <u>Greek</u> literature and culture, particularly through the works of poets like '''[[Alcman]]''' and '''[[Pindar]]''', as well as the philosophical prose of writers from the <u>Dorian</u> region. The <u>Doric</u> choral lyric tradition, renowned for its vigor and grandeur, utilized specific '''metrical forms''' that are closely associated with the dialect's phonological characteristics. The spread of <u>Doric Greek</u> in colonies across the <u>Mediterranean</u> and <u>Black Sea</u> regions further attests to its influence, with architectural, artistic, and literary traditions bearing witness to the dialect's enduring legacy. The continued existence of <u>Tsakonian</u>, despite its endangerment, highlights the lasting heritage of <u>Doric Greek</u> in the linguistic tapestry of Greece.

The '''artificial dialect''' of literary '''choral lyric''' is <u>Doric</u> interspersed with <u>Ionic</u> epic and some <u>Lesbian</u> poetical trends. Its first poet was '''[[Eumelus]]''' of '''Corinth''' (~760-720 BCE). The type of <u>Doric</u> used by '''[[Alcman]]''' (~650-600 BCE) is very similar to his <u>Laconian</u> vernacular. From the time of '''[[Simonides]]''' of '''Ceos''' and '''[[Pindar]]''' (''~''500 BCE) onward, many <u>Doric</u> elements are replaced by <u>Ionic</u> '''epic''' elements, a change also represented in the lyric elements of <u>Attic</u> '''tragedy'''. The <u>Syracusan</u> variety of <u>Doric</u> is used in the '''comedies''' of '''[[Epicharmus]]''', the '''mimes''' of '''[[Sophron]]''', and later in the scientific prose of '''[[Archimedes]]'''. 

The <u>Tarentan</u> variety is found in the works of the [[Pythagoras|'''Pythagoreans''']] '''[[Archytas]]''' of '''Tarentum''' and '''[[Philolaos]]'''. The <u>Doric</u> dialect found in '''[[Theocritus]]'''’ '''idylls''' is often considered an artificial mixture of several varieties of <u>Doric</u> found in poetry, but it may well represent the type of <u>Doric</u> spoken in '''Alexandria''' and <u>Egypt</u> during the first half of the 3rd century BCE by <u>Greeks</u> of <u>Cyrenaean</u> origin.

=== Ionic Greek ===
'''Ionic''' or <u>Ionian Greek</u> (<u>Ancient Greek</u>: Ἰωνική, ''Iōnikḗ'') was a subdialect of the <u>Attic–Ionic</u> dialect group of <u>Ancient Greek</u>. The <u>Ionic</u> group traditionally comprises three dialectal varieties that were spoken in <u>Euboea</u> (<u>West Ionic</u>), the northern <u>Cyclades</u> (<u>Central Ionic</u>), and a later strand in <u>Asiatic Ionia</u> (<u>East Ionic</u>).

The works of '''[[Homer]]''' and '''[[Hesiod]]''' are among the most popular poetic works that were written in a literary form of the <u>Ionic</u> dialect, known as <u>Epic Greek</u> (or <u>Homeric Greek</u>). The oldest <u>Greek</u> prose, including that of '''[[Heraclitus]]''', '''[[Herodotus]]''', '''[[Democritus]]''', and '''[[Hippocrates]]''', was also written in <u>Ionic</u>. By the end of the 400s BCE, <u>Ionic</u> was supplanted by <u>Attic</u>, which had become dominant.

Transitioning from <u>Proto-Greek</u> or <u>Mycenaean Greek</u> to early <u>Ionic</u> involved a series of linguistic transformations. Early <u>Ionic</u> shows a tendency towards the use of ει (ei) for <u>Proto-Greek</u> ē and ου (ou) for ō, diverging from the older forms. This change is indicative of the <u>Ionic</u> dialect's phonetic evolution. <u>Ionic Greek</u> tends to simplify '''diphthongs''' more than <u>Mycenaean</u> did. The <u>Proto-Greek</u> diphthong *ai becomes <u>Ionic</u> ε (e), contrasting with <u>Mycenaean</u>, which often retained it. <u>Ionic</u> also completed the loss of the /w/ sound (<u>digamma</u>), which was still present in <u>Mycenaean</u>. Before '''front vowels''' (*e, *i), some consonants in <u>Proto-Greek</u> underwent '''palatalization''' in <u>Ionic</u>. *ky became σσ (ss) or ττ (tt) in <u>Ionic</u>, reflecting a significant phonetic change.

<u>Ionic</u> also showed alterations in the '''first declension''', particularly in the use of η (ē) instead of α (a) in certain '''feminine nouns''', a shift from earlier forms. Likewise, <u>Ionic</u> exhibited a simplification in the '''third declension''', often by eliminating the σ ('''sigma''') in certain case endings. <u>Ionic Greek</u> featured extensive use of '''contract verbs''', where vowels in the stem '''merge''' with endings, a development that is less pronounced in <u>Mycenaean</u>. The simplification and reduction of '''athematic verb forms''' can be seen in <u>Ionic</u>, reflecting broader trends in verbal morphology.

While syntactical data from <u>Mycenaean</u> is limited due to the nature of '''Linear B''' records (mostly administrative), the transition to Ionic Greek involved a more complex use of '''clauses''' and sentence structures than what is inferable from <u>Mycenaean</u> records. <u>Ionic</u> developed a nuanced use of '''particles''' to express '''modality''', '''emphasis''', and '''aspect''', which were only rudimentarily present in <u>Mycenaean</u>.

The shift to <u>Ionic</u> involved a significant expansion of '''vocabulary''', reflecting changes in culture, technology, and social organization. <u>Ionic Greek</u> developed new '''semantic fields''' and utilized '''loanwords''', particularly from neighboring <u>Anatolian</u> languages.

Moving from the '''Linear B''' script to the '''alphabetic''' script for <u>Ionic</u> marked a significant shift in their writing system. The new alphabet allowed for a more precise representation of sounds, which in turn facilitated the recording of the <u>Ionic</u> dialect's phonological and morphological innovations.

=== Attic Greek ===
For a fuller treatment focused on linguistics and language-learning, see [[Classical Greek]].

<u>Attic</u> is the <u>Greek</u> dialect of the ancient region of <u>Attica</u>, including in '''Athens'''. Often called <u>Classical Greek</u>, it was the prestige dialect of the Greek world for centuries. It is also the basis for the modern <u>Greek Koine</u>. Attic is traditionally classified as a member or sister dialect of the <u>Ionic</u> branch and is closely related thereto.

<u>Ionic</u> vowel evolution was characterized by the use of ει (ei) for ancient ē and ου (ou) for ō; the dialect showed a tendency for the simplification of diphthongs. In contrast, <u>Attic</u> retained the long vowels η (ē) and ω (ō) more frequently than <u>Ionic</u>, resisting the change to ει (ei) and ου (ou) in certain contexts. <u>Attic Greek</u> also exhibits less diphthong simplification compared to <u>Ionic</u>.

<u>Ionic</u> tended to omit the /h/ sound ('''psilosis'''), especially in its <u>Anatolian</u> language regions. <u>Attic</u>, however, consistently retained this '''aspirate''', marking a clear phonological distinction between the two dialects. Both dialects exhibit '''palatalization''', but there are nuanced differences in their treatment of consonants before front vowels.

<u>Attic Greek</u> often uses η (ē) in the '''genitive''' and '''dative''' '''singular''' endings of '''first declension''' nouns, where <u>Ionic</u> might show a different form or more variation. <u>Attic</u> features a significant use of '''contract nouns''' and '''contract adjectives''', which undergo '''vowel contraction''' in certain cases more systematically than in <u>Ionic</u>. <u>Attic</u> also shows extensive contraction in verbs, a feature that is present but less systematically applied in <u>Ionic</u>, resulting in distinctive forms in <u>Attic</u> conjugation patterns. <u>Attic Greek</u> sometimes forms the '''future tense''' differently than <u>Ionic</u>, reflecting divergent morphological developments.

The '''syntax''' of the dialect set is more extensively documented due to the wealth of literary and historical texts. While <u>Ionic</u> and <u>Attic</u> share many syntactical structures due to their common heritage, there are distinctions. <u>Attic Greek</u> uses '''particles''' in a way that is often more nuanced and complex, contributing to the stylistic sophistication of the dialect. The syntactical handling of '''relative pronouns''' in <u>Attic</u> can differ from <u>Ionic</u>, affecting the flow and clarity of complex sentences.

As relates to the eastern dialects of <u>Ionic</u> and <u>Attic</u>, certain words and expressions are preferred or found exclusively in one dialect or the other, reflecting regional differences, cultural practices, and historical developments. <u>Ionic</u>, due to its geographical proximity to <u>Asia Minor</u>, incorporates more loanwords from <u>Anatolian</u> and other <u>Near Eastern</u> languages. <u>Attic</u>, while also open to external influences, exhibits a slightly different set of borrowings. 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Attic Greek alphabet
! colspan="3" |letters
!
! colspan="2" |equivalents
!
|-
!capital
!lowercase
!combinations
!name
!Britannica preferred
!alternatives
!approximate Classical Attic pronunciation
|-
| colspan="7" |*Old-style character.
|-
| colspan="7" |**Final, ç.
|-
|Α
|α, α*
|
|alpha
|a
|
|are
|-
|
|
|αι
|
|ae in proper nouns, ai in common words
|e
|ice
|-
|
|
|αυ
|
|au
|
|now
|-
|Β
|β
|
|beta
|b
|
|baby
|-
|Γ
|γ
|
|gamma
|g
|
|go
|-
|
|
|γγ
|
|ng
|
|angle
|-
|
|
|γκ
|
|nk
|nc
|ink
|-
|
|
|γξ
|
|nx
|
|thanks
|-
|
|
|γχ
|
|nch
|nkh
|in case
|-
|Δ
|δ, ∂*
|
|delta
|d
|
|dog
|-
|Ε
|ε
|
|epsilon
|e
|
|bet
|-
|
|
|ει
|
|ei
|e or i
|day
|-
|
|
|ευ
|
|eu
|
|bet + now
|-
|Ζ
|ζ
|
|zeta
|z
|
|used
|-
|Η
|η
|
|eta
|ē
|e
|air
|-
|
|
|ηυ
|
|ēu
|eu
|airway
|-
|Θ
|θ, ϑ*
|
|theta
|th
|
|tin
|-
|Ι
|ι
|
|iota
|i
|
|even or pin
|-
|Κ
|κ
|
|kappa
|c in proper nouns, k in common words
|
|pocket
|-
|Λ
|λ
|
|lambda
|l
|
|lily
|-
|Μ
|μ
|
|mu
|m
|
|maim
|-
|Ν
|ν
|
|nu
|n
|
|not
|-
|Ξ
|ξ
|
|xi
|x
|
|ax
|-
|Ο
|ο
|
|omicron
|o
|
|German so
|-
|
|
|οι
|
|oe in proper nouns, oi in common words
|
|German so + day
|-
|
|
|ου
|
|ou
|
|own
|-
|Π
|π
|
|pi
|p
|
|spin
|-
|Ρ
|ρ
|
|rho
|initial, rh; medial, r
|
|rose
|-
|
|
|ρρ
|
|rrh
|
|German Naturrecht
|-
|Σ
|σ**
|
|sigma
|s
|
|sand
|-
|Τ
|τ
|
|tau
|t
|
|stay
|-
|Υ
|υ
|
|upsilon
|y
|u
|French du
|-
|
|
|υι
|
|ui
|
|French concluiez
|-
|Φ
|ϕ, ϕ*
|
|phi
|ph
|
|pin
|-
|Χ
|χ
|
|chi
|ch
|kh
|kin
|-
|Ψ
|ψ
|
|psi
|ps
|
|perhaps
|-
|Ω
|ω
|
|omega
|ō
|o
|call
|} 

[[Category:Linguistics]]