Hellenic Languages
The Hellenic language family is somewhat unusual, in the way that the Greek language occupies such a central focus for the family. Most classifications consider it to be the only language in the family, but some consider it to also contain a few other varieties that are different enough to be differentiated as separate languages (though this is always with varying degrees of controversy).
The Hellenic languages might have been most closely related to ancient Macedonian (either an ancient Greek dialect or a separate related language) and Phrygian, but neither are documented well enough to permit realistic comparison. Among modern languages, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian and Indo-Iranian languages.
Proto-Greek
Proto-Greek (or Proto-Hellenic) is the last common ancestor of all varieties of Ancient Greek, coming along with new populations entering the region ~2200-1900 BCE. By ~1700 BCE, this ancestral language had differentiated into a southern and northern pair. It was only subsequent to this that the dialects further differentiated. Proto-Greek is believed to have developed in a region bordering related languages; Proto-Indo-Iranian in the east, and Proto-Armenian and Proto-Phrygian in the west. Proto-Greek speakers may have migrated from the Black Sea region just as the transition to the Bronze Age occurred.
The main body of Proto-Greek speakers settled in a region that included southwestern Illyria, Epirus, northwestern Thessaly and western Macedonia. Proto-Greek is a centrum language (described further in Indo-European Languages), and we see a vocalization of word-initial laryngeals (y- to dy- > dz-), and a loss of final non-nasal stop consonants (for example, Latin quid / Sanskrit cid compare to Greek ti. In scenarios where /m/ is the final phoneme, it switches to /n/.
Greek is unique among Indo-European languages in reflecting the replacement of PIE's three laryngeals with distinct vowels. Most Indo-European languages can be traced back to a dialectal variety in which all three laryngeals had merged and were replaced by a single vowel, but Greek is distinct.
Proto-Greek numerals were derived directly from Indo-European.
- one: *héns (masculine), *hmía (feminine) (> Myc. e-me /heméi/ (dative); Att./Ion. εἷς (ἑνός), μία, heîs (henos), mía)
- two: *dúwō (> Myc. du-wo /dúwoː/; Hom. δύω, dúō; Att.-Ion. δύο, dúo)
- three: *tréyes (> Myc. ti-ri /trins/; Att./Ion. τρεῖς, treîs; Lesb. τρής, trḗs; Cret. τρέες, trées)
- four: nominative *kʷétwores, genitive *kʷeturṓn (> Myc. qe-to-ro-we /kʷétroːwes/ "four-eared"; Att. τέτταρες, téttares; Ion. τέσσερες, tésseres; Boeot. πέτταρες, péttares; Thess. πίτταρες, píttares; Lesb. πίσυρες, písures; Dor. τέτορες, tétores)
- five: *pénkʷe (> Att.-Ion. πέντε, pénte; Lesb., Thess. πέμπε, pémpe)
- six: *hwéks (> Att. ἕξ, héks; Dor. ϝέξ, wéks)
- seven: *heptə́ (> Att. ἑπτά, heptá)
- eight: *oktṓ (> Att. ὀκτώ, oktṓ)
- nine: *ennéwə (> Att. ἐννέα, ennéa; Dor. ἐννῆ, ennê)
- ten: *dékə (> Att. δέκα, déka)
- hundred: *hekətón (> Att. ἑκατόν, hekatón)
- thousand: *kʰéhliyoi (> Att. χίλιοι, khílioi)
Ancient Greek Dialects
In the Hellenistic period, the dialect now known as Koine Greek became the lingua franca across Greek-speaking regions and overtook almost all other dialects; it arose first within the armies of Alexander the Great. Before its development, a number of now-defunct dialects were pervasive across the region, though there is some dispute as to how they are classified geographically and/or temporally.
Mycenean
The earliest known dialect was Mycenean Greek, which occupied the southern and eastern parts of Greece and is attested from Linear B tablets of ~1500-1100 BCE. Most of the written evidence comes from the palace complex at Knossos in Central Crete, and Pylos (in the southwest Peloponnese), but some additional proofs have been discovered at Mycenae (in Argolis), Tiryns (in Argolis), Thebes (in Boeotia), and Chania (in Western Crete).
Mycenean was written in Linear B script, an adaptation to an earlier Cretan script (Linear A, which was developed for an undeciphered pre-Indo-European language of Crete, called Minoan). Because it was adapted from a script written to represent a wholly different language, many sounds in the Mycenean phonemic inventory were not represented in Linear B. In particular, it only represents open syllables (where the syllable ends in a vowel), and Mycenean Greek freely used closed syllables (ending with consonants). For example, the consonants l, m, n, r, s are omitted at the end of a syllable or before another consonant. 𐀞𐀲, pa-ta is panta (all); 𐀏𐀒, ka-ko is khalkos (copper).
| Phonology of Mycenean Greek | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type | Bilabial | Dental | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
| central | labialized | ||||||
| Nasal | m | n | |||||
| Stop | voiceless | p | t | ts* | k | kʷ | |
| voiced | b | d | dz* | ɡ | ɡʷ | ||
| aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | kʰ | kʰʷ | |||
| Fricative | s | h | |||||
| Approximant | j | w | |||||
| Trill | r | ||||||
| Lateral | l | ||||||
In later ancient Greek varieties, labialized velar consonants (/kʷ, ɡʷ, kʰʷ/) were replaced with labials /b, p, pʰ/, dentals /d, t, tʰ/, or velars /ɡ k kʰ/, depending on the context and the dialect. For example, 𐀦𐀄𐀒𐀫, qo-u-ko-ro is gʷoukoloi (classical βουκόλοι boukóloi, cowherds). There were at least five vowels /a, e, i, o, u/, which could be both short and long.
Nouns likely decline for 7 cases: nominative, genitive, accusative, dative, vocative, instrumental and locative; 3 genders: masculine, feminine, neuter; and 3 numbers: singular, dual, plural. The last two cases had merged with other cases by the era of Classical Greek. In Koine Greek, only nominative, accusative, genitive and vocative remain as separate cases with their own morphological markings. Adjectives agree with nouns in case, gender, and number.
Verbs probably conjugate for 3 tenses: past, present, future; 3 aspects: perfect, perfective, imperfective; 3 numbers: singular, dual, plural; 4 moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, optative; 3 voices: active, middle, passive; 3 persons: first, second, third; infinitives, and verbal adjectives.
While the use of Mycenaean Greek may have ceased with the fall of the Mycenaean mainland core, some traces of it are found in the later Greek dialects. Arcadocypriot Greek is believed to be rather close to Mycenaean Greek. Arcadocypriot was spoken in Arcadia (central Peloponnese), and in Cyprus. Both have similarities to Pamphylian as well.
Aside from Hittite, Ancient Greek is the oldest attested written Indo-European language. In Mycenean times, speakers of the western-oriented variant (ancestors of the later Dorian Greeks and related peoples) were spoken around the Pindus Mountains (which bisects Western Greece from the rest of the continent along a NE/SW line to the Peloponnese). In Eastern Thessaly, Boeotia, Attica, and the Peloponnesus and on certain Aegean islands (notably Crete), only varieties of Greek other than West Greek were spoken.
Arcadocypriot Greek
At the time of the great Mycenaean expansion, a dialect with a high degree of uniformity was spoken both in Cyprus and the Peloponnese but at some point, West Greek speakers intruded upon the Peloponnese and occupied its coastal states but made no significant inroads into Arcadia. The remnants of the original dialect became the speakers of Arcadocypriot Greek.
Arcadocypriot (sometimes called southern Achaean) is closely related to the Mycenean dialect recorded in Linear B inscriptions in Crete, but it was written using an innovative Cypriot syllabary (from ~1000 BCE) until it too was replaced by the Greek alphabet.
Compared to the Arcadocypriot dialect, Mycenaean Greek preserved more archaic consonantal forms, such as the retention of /w/ (digamma), which is often lost in later Greek dialects (including Arcadocypriot). The vowel system and diphthongs in Mycenaean show earlier forms that undergo various changes by the time of the Arcadocypriot dialects. For example, the long ā (Alpha) in Mycenaean often corresponds to a long ō (Omega) in Classical Greek, a change that is inconsistently applied in Arcadocypriot.
While both dialects share many similarities in verb conjugations and noun declensions due to their common heritage, there are differences in specific forms and uses. Arcadocypriot shows developments in the morphology that are more aligned with later Classical Greek forms, whereas Mycenaean retains more archaic features. The pronominal system of Mycenaean Greek displays forms that are often more archaic than those in later dialects, including Arcadocypriot. Additionally, the use and frequency of certain particles and prepositions differ, reflecting changes in the language over time.
Given the nature of the Linear B records, which are largely administrative and inventory lists, much less is known about the syntax of Mycenaean Greek compared to the more extensive literary and inscriptive evidence available for Arcadocypriot. However, it is reasonable to assume that there were syntactical evolutions from the Mycenaean period to the later dialects.
There are differences in vocabulary, partly reflecting the time gap between the two and the different cultural and technological contexts. Mycenaean Greek contains words related to palace administration, trade, and production that are not as prevalent in later periods. Arcadocypriot, especially on Cyprus, was influenced by its geographical context, including contact with non-Greek languages, which introduced new words and meanings missing from Mycenaean Greek.
Aeolic Greek
Also known as Aeolian, Aeolic Greek consisted of a set of related dialects spoken mainly in Boeotia (NE Peloponnese), Thessaly (E Greece), Lesbos (in the Aegean Sea), and in the Greek colonies of Aeolis in (coastal NW Anatolia). This dialect is best known for the works of Sappho, famed Lesbian poet, as well as her contemporary Alcaeus, also of Mytilene.
Aeolic poetry mostly uses four classical metres known as the Aeolics: Glyconic (the most basic form of Aeolic line), hendecasyllabic verse, the Sapphic stanza, and Alcaic stanza.
- The Sapphic Stanza consists of four lines: three identical lines called Sapphic hendecasyllables followed by an Adonic line. The typical pattern for a Sapphic hendecasyllable line is: Long, short, -, long, -, long, short, short, long, -, -. This meter was prominently used by Sappho in her lyric poetry and is effective for expressing personal emotions and themes.
- The Alcaic Stanza consists of four lines with varying metrical patterns; the first two lines are Alcaic hendecasyllables, the third is an Alcaic enneasyllable, and the fourth is an Alcaic decasyllable. The typical pattern is more complex and varies between the lines but generally features a mix of long and short syllables with a specific rhythmic cadence. This meter was used by Alcaeus and later by Roman poets like Horace. It is well-suited for political, philosophical, and personal themes.
- The Glyconic Metre is a shorter form that can stand alone or be part of larger stanzas. A simple glyconic line follows a pattern similar to: Long, -, long, short, short, long, -, -. This metre is named after the poet Glycon and is used for a variety of themes. It's often found in combination with other metrical lines in complex stanzas.
- The Asclepiadean Metres is a family of metrical forms that include several variations. A common Asclepiadean line might follow a pattern such as: Long, short, short, long, -, long, short, short, long, -, -. Named after the poet Asclepiades of Samos, these metres are versatile and can accommodate a wide range of moods and subjects.
Proto-Greek utilized a labialized /*kʷ/, but it was changed to /p/ in the Aeolic dialects, while the other Greek dialects changed it to /t/ before /e/ and /i/. PIE *kʷetwores → Lesbian písures, Boeotian péttares ~ Attic téttares, Ionic tésseres, Doric tétores (English: four). This shift is an example of how Aeolic often preserved the labial component of the sound, a feature that can be traced back to its Indo-European roots. Aeolic shows a tendency towards the simplification of diphthongs; Proto-Greek *ai became Aeolic *ā. Similarly, *oi became *ū in Aeolic, reflecting a broader tendency towards vowel modification. Aeolic dialects, especially Lesbian, exhibit psilosis (the loss of the /h/ sound at the start of words) where other dialects retained it. This resulted in a smoother pronunciation in Aeolic compared to the aspirated sounds in other Greek dialects.
Unlike in Ionic and Attic dialects, Aeolic retains the /s/ sound in clusters where it precedes /m/, /n/, /l/, or /r/. Proto-Greek *smikros becomes μικρός (mikrós) in Aeolic, contrasting with Ionic and Attic μικρός (mikrós), where the /s/ is dropped. Aeolic sometimes retains aspirate clusters that are simplified in other dialects, illustrating the conservative tendency in its phonology.
Aeolic uses -ντι (-nti) for the third person plural ending of verbs, a feature that is archaic and preserved from earlier stages of Proto-Greek, in contrast with the more common -ουσι (-ousi) ending seen in other dialects. Aeolic dialects have distinctive uses of the definite article, often reflecting older forms or employing the article in ways that differ from other Greek dialects. There are unique pronouns and particles in Aeolic, some of which preserve older Indo-European forms that have disappeared or changed significantly in other dialects.
Aeolic, particularly in its poetic forms, displays a more flexible word order compared to the relatively more fixed order in classical Attic prose. This allowed for a variety of expressive and metrical possibilities. Aeolic sometimes exhibits distinctive uses or absences of certain prepositions, reflecting both its geographic isolation and its preservation of older linguistic forms.
Doric Greek
Doric (or Dorian; Δωρισμός, Dōrismós), also known as West Greek, was a group of closely related western dialects spoken by semi-nomadic Greek speakers living around the Pindus Mountains; its varieties are divided into the Doric and Northwest Doric subgroups. Doric was spoken in a vast area, including northern Greece (Acarnania, Aetolia, Epirus, western and eastern Locris, Phocis, Doris, and possibly Macedonia), most of the Peloponnese excluding Arcadia (Achaea, Elis, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Aegina, Corinth, and Megara), the southern Aegean (Kythira, Milos, Thera, Crete, Karpathos, and Rhodes), as well as the colonies of some of those regions in Cyrene, Magna Graecia (Syracuse, Corinth, and Tarentum), the Black Sea, the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea. It was also spoken in the Greek sanctuaries of Dodona, Delphi, and Olympia, as well as at the four Panhellenic festivals: the Isthmian, Nemean, Pythian, and Olympic Games. The only living descendant of the (Laconian) Doric dialects is Tsakonian, though it is critically endangered, with only a few hundred (mostly elderly) speakers left.
In Doric Greek, the long vowel /ā/ (Alpha) often remains unchanged, contrasting with its evolution to /ē/ (Eta) in Ionic and Attic dialects. This conservative aspect of Doric is emblematic of its preservation of many archaic features. Doric is known for the retention of the sibilant sound /s/ in positions where it becomes /h/ or is dropped in other dialects. This includes cases where /s/ appears before a consonant, maintaining a more archaic phonological feature. The dialect set frequently exhibits the change of /e/ to /a/ in certain environments, a phenomenon known as Doric aorism. Doric also shows a preference for retaining the digamma /w/ in positions where it is lost in most other Greek dialects, highlighting another conservative trait.
Doric dialects typically use -ντι (-nti) for the third person plural ending in verbs, mirroring an archaic feature also observed in Aeolic Greek. This contrasts with the -ουσι (-ousi) ending prevalent in Ionic and Attic. Doric Greek displays unique features in noun declension, including specific forms of the genitive case. For instance, the genitive singular of first declension nouns often ends in -ας (-as) instead of the -ης (-ēs) found in Attic Greek. The use of the definite article in Doric can exhibit archaic forms and uses, distinguishing it from other Greek dialects through its specific syntactic and morphological applications. The syntax of Doric Greek, while less documented in comparison to Ionic and Attic due to the nature of surviving texts, likely featured variations reflective of its geographic diversity and the colloquial use in various regions. The syntax in choral lyric poetry, inscriptions, and the prose of some Doric regions would have shown distinctive patterns aligning with the dialect's phonological and morphological traits.
Doric Greek is characterized by a distinct vocabulary, with numerous words and forms that are either unique to the dialect or used in senses different from those in other dialects. This includes specialized terms related to local flora, fauna, agriculture, social institutions, and religious practices, underscoring the dialect's rich regional character. The dialect set also contributed significantly to Greek literature and culture, particularly through the works of poets like Alcman and Pindar, as well as the philosophical prose of writers from the Dorian region. The Doric choral lyric tradition, renowned for its vigor and grandeur, utilized specific metrical forms that are closely associated with the dialect's phonological characteristics. The spread of Doric Greek in colonies across the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions further attests to its influence, with architectural, artistic, and literary traditions bearing witness to the dialect's enduring legacy. The continued existence of Tsakonian, despite its endangerment, highlights the lasting heritage of Doric Greek in the linguistic tapestry of Greece.
The artificial dialect of literary choral lyric is Doric interspersed with Ionic epic and some Lesbian poetical trends. Its first poet was Eumelus of Corinth (~760-720 BCE). The type of Doric used by Alcman (~650-600 BCE) is very similar to his Laconian vernacular. From the time of Simonides of Ceos and Pindar (~500 BCE) onward, many Doric elements are replaced by Ionic epic elements, a change also represented in the lyric elements of Attic tragedy. The Syracusan variety of Doric is used in the comedies of Epicharmus, the mimes of Sophron, and later in the scientific prose of Archimedes.
The Tarentan variety is found in the works of the Pythagoreans Archytas of Tarentum and Philolaos. The Doric dialect found in Theocritus’ idylls is often considered an artificial mixture of several varieties of Doric found in poetry, but it may well represent the type of Doric spoken in Alexandria and Egypt during the first half of the 3rd century BCE by Greeks of Cyrenaean origin.
Ionic Greek
Ionic or Ionian Greek (Ancient Greek: Ἰωνική, Iōnikḗ) was a subdialect of the Attic–Ionic dialect group of Ancient Greek. The Ionic group traditionally comprises three dialectal varieties that were spoken in Euboea (West Ionic), the northern Cyclades (Central Ionic), and a later strand in Asiatic Ionia (East Ionic).
The works of Homer and Hesiod are among the most popular poetic works that were written in a literary form of the Ionic dialect, known as Epic Greek (or Homeric Greek). The oldest Greek prose, including that of Heraclitus, Herodotus, Democritus, and Hippocrates, was also written in Ionic. By the end of the 400s BCE, Ionic was supplanted by Attic, which had become dominant.
Transitioning from Proto-Greek or Mycenaean Greek to early Ionic involved a series of linguistic transformations. Early Ionic shows a tendency towards the use of ει (ei) for Proto-Greek ē and ου (ou) for ō, diverging from the older forms. This change is indicative of the Ionic dialect's phonetic evolution. Ionic Greek tends to simplify diphthongs more than Mycenaean did. The Proto-Greek diphthong *ai becomes Ionic ε (e), contrasting with Mycenaean, which often retained it. Ionic also completed the loss of the /w/ sound (digamma), which was still present in Mycenaean. Before front vowels (*e, *i), some consonants in Proto-Greek underwent palatalization in Ionic. *ky became σσ (ss) or ττ (tt) in Ionic, reflecting a significant phonetic change.
Ionic also showed alterations in the first declension, particularly in the use of η (ē) instead of α (a) in certain feminine nouns, a shift from earlier forms. Likewise, Ionic exhibited a simplification in the third declension, often by eliminating the σ (sigma) in certain case endings. Ionic Greek featured extensive use of contract verbs, where vowels in the stem merge with endings, a development that is less pronounced in Mycenaean. The simplification and reduction of athematic verb forms can be seen in Ionic, reflecting broader trends in verbal morphology.
While syntactical data from Mycenaean is limited due to the nature of Linear B records (mostly administrative), the transition to Ionic Greek involved a more complex use of clauses and sentence structures than what is inferable from Mycenaean records. Ionic developed a nuanced use of particles to express modality, emphasis, and aspect, which were only rudimentarily present in Mycenaean.
The shift to Ionic involved a significant expansion of vocabulary, reflecting changes in culture, technology, and social organization. Ionic Greek developed new semantic fields and utilized loanwords, particularly from neighboring Anatolian languages.
Moving from the Linear B script to the alphabetic script for Ionic marked a significant shift in their writing system. The new alphabet allowed for a more precise representation of sounds, which in turn facilitated the recording of the Ionic dialect's phonological and morphological innovations.
Attic Greek
For a fuller treatment, see Classical Greek.
Attic is the Greek dialect of the ancient region of Attica, including in Athens. Often called Classical Greek, it was the prestige dialect of the Greek world for centuries. It is also the basis for the modern Greek Koine. Attic is traditionally classified as a member or sister dialect of the Ionic branch and is closely related thereto.
Ionic vowel evolution was characterized by the use of ει (ei) for ancient ē and ου (ou) for ō; the dialect showed a tendency for the simplification of diphthongs. In contrast, Attic retained the long vowels η (ē) and ω (ō) more frequently than Ionic, resisting the change to ει (ei) and ου (ou) in certain contexts. Attic Greek also exhibits less diphthong simplification compared to Ionic.
Ionic tended to omit the /h/ sound (psilosis), especially in its Anatolian language regions. Attic, however, consistently retained this aspirate, marking a clear phonological distinction between the two dialects. Both dialects exhibit palatalization, but there are nuanced differences in their treatment of consonants before front vowels.
Attic Greek often uses η (ē) in the genitive and dative singular endings of first declension nouns, where Ionic might show a different form or more variation. Attic features a significant use of contract nouns and contract adjectives, which undergo vowel contraction in certain cases more systematically than in Ionic. Attic also shows extensive contraction in verbs, a feature that is present but less systematically applied in Ionic, resulting in distinctive forms in Attic conjugation patterns. Attic Greek sometimes forms the future tense differently than Ionic, reflecting divergent morphological developments.
The syntax of the dialect set is more extensively documented due to the wealth of literary and historical texts. While Ionic and Attic share many syntactical structures due to their common heritage, there are distinctions. Attic Greek uses particles in a way that is often more nuanced and complex, contributing to the stylistic sophistication of the dialect. The syntactical handling of relative pronouns in Attic can differ from Ionic, affecting the flow and clarity of complex sentences.
As relates to the eastern dialects of Ionic and Attic, certain words and expressions are preferred or found exclusively in one dialect or the other, reflecting regional differences, cultural practices, and historical developments. Ionic, due to its geographical proximity to Asia Minor, incorporates more loanwords from Anatolian and other Near Eastern languages. Attic, while also open to external influences, exhibits a slightly different set of borrowings.
| letters | equivalents | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| capital | lowercase | combinations | name | Britannica preferred | alternatives | approximate Classical Attic pronunciation |
| *Old-style character. | ||||||
| **Final, ç. | ||||||
| Α | α, α* | alpha | a | are | ||
| αι | ae in proper nouns, ai in common words | e | ice | |||
| αυ | au | now | ||||
| Β | β | beta | b | baby | ||
| Γ | γ | gamma | g | go | ||
| γγ | ng | angle | ||||
| γκ | nk | nc | ink | |||
| γξ | nx | thanks | ||||
| γχ | nch | nkh | in case | |||
| Δ | δ, ∂* | delta | d | dog | ||
| Ε | ε | epsilon | e | bet | ||
| ει | ei | e or i | day | |||
| ευ | eu | bet + now | ||||
| Ζ | ζ | zeta | z | used | ||
| Η | η | eta | ē | e | air | |
| ηυ | ēu | eu | airway | |||
| Θ | θ, ϑ* | theta | th | tin | ||
| Ι | ι | iota | i | even or pin | ||
| Κ | κ | kappa | c in proper nouns, k in common words | |||
| Λ | λ | lambda | l | lily | ||
| Μ | μ | mu | m | maim | ||
| Ν | ν | nu | n | not | ||
| Ξ | ξ | xi | x | ax | ||
| Ο | ο | omicron | o | German so | ||
| οι | oe in proper nouns, oi in common words | German so + day | ||||
| ου | ou | own | ||||
| Π | π | pi | p | spin | ||
| Ρ | ρ | rho | initial, rh; medial, r | rose | ||
| ρρ | rrh | German Naturrecht | ||||
| Σ | σ** | sigma | s | sand | ||
| Τ | τ | tau | t | stay | ||
| Υ | υ | upsilon | y | u | French du | |
| υι | ui | French concluiez | ||||
| Φ | ϕ, ϕ* | phi | ph | pin | ||
| Χ | χ | chi | ch | kh | kin | |
| Ψ | ψ | psi | ps | perhaps | ||
| Ω | ω | omega | ō | o | call | |