Lycurgus

Lycurgus of Sparta (Λυκοῦργος, Lykoûrgos; Lycurgus; /ˈlɪkərɡəs/) is a semi-legendary figure traditionally credited with the establishment of the military-oriented reformation of Spartan society. His life and reforms are enveloped in myth and historical uncertainty, with ancient sources providing varying accounts of his deeds and the timeframe of his existence. Most accounts place him in the 9th century BCE. Little is known about the early life of Lycurgus; according to some historians (like Plutarch), he was a member of the Eurypontid dynasty, one of the two royal houses of Sparta. Following a period of lawlessness and internal strife within Sparta, Lycurgus is said to have taken upon himself the task of reforming the state's laws and social organization. The precise reasons for these reforms are subject to speculation, with motivations ranging from a desire to curb excessive wealth and inequality, to responding to a crisis in Spartan military and societal structure. Before his reforms, Lycurgus is often described as having traveled widely, visiting several other states in Greece, as well as Crete, Asia Minor, and possibly Egypt. These travels are said to have influenced his ideas for Spartan reforms, particularly through his observations of the legal and social systems of other cultures. However, the historicity of these travels and their impact on his policies is debated among scholars.

Lycurgus's reforms, known collectively as the Great Rhetra, were comprehensive, aiming to create a well-ordered society focused on military excellence and communal living. Key elements of his reforms include:

• He divided Spartan society into three classes: the Spartiates (full citizens), the Perioeci (free but non-citizen inhabitants), and the Helots (state-owned serfs). The Spartiates were the ruling military class, subjected from a young age to a rigorous education and training system known as the Agoge. Boys entered the Agoge at the age of seven and underwent training in two main phases.
  • Childhood (ages 7-18): The initial phase focused on physical conditioning, communal living, and loyalty to the Spartan group. Boys were organized into agelai (packs or herds) and trained in skills necessary for survival and combat. They underwent rigorous physical exercises, learned to endure hardship, and were taught reading, writing, music, and dancing, which were considered important for their development as well-rounded warriors.
  • Adolescence to Early Adulthood (ages 18-20): In this phase, the emphasis was on more advanced military training. Young men entered a period of intensified discipline and preparation for joining the ranks of the Spartan army. At 20, they underwent a test of fitness, military ability, and leadership skills to become full citizens and soldiers.
  • Spartiates, also known as Homoioi (equals), were full citizens, enjoying rights and privileges in return for their lifelong commitment to military service. They were expected to lead by example, adhering strictly to Spartan laws and customs. The Spartiates were at the top of Spartan society, responsible for military leadership and political participation. They lived a life dedicated to the state, from their upbringing in the Agoge to serving in the military until the age of 60.
  • The Perioeci (from περίοικοι, períoikoi, meaning "those who live around") were the inhabitants of the perioikis, communities located in the surrounding territories of Laconia and Messenia, territories controlled by Sparta in ancient Greece. Unlike the Helots, who were state-owned serfs primarily of Messenian origin, the Perioeci were free but non-citizen inhabitants. They played a crucial role in Spartan society, despite their lack of political rights in comparison to the Spartiates, the full citizen-soldiers of Sparta.
  • Economically, the Perioeci were indispensable to Sparta; they engaged in manufacturing, trade, and agriculture, activities that Spartiates were forbidden from undertaking due to their focus on military training and governance. The Perioeci produced goods, including weapons and pottery, and were involved in commerce, which allowed Sparta to participate in trade without compromising its military ethos. Their communities were autonomous, managing their own local affairs, but they were ultimately under Spartan control and did not participate in the political life of Sparta.
• Lycurgus is credited with the redistribution of land to ensure equality among the Spartiates and the introduction of iron currency to replace gold and silver, aiming to discourage wealth accumulation and promote a focus on martial virtues and communal values.
• He established the common messes (syssitia), where all Spartiates would eat together in communal dining halls, further emphasizing equality and fraternity among citizens.
• Lycurgus is attributed with the formation of the Spartan phalanx, a military formation that became the backbone of Spartan military power.
• The establishment of the Gerousia (a council of elders, including two kings and 28 elders over the age of 60) and the Ephors (five officials elected annually who had significant power in governance), which together with the Apella (the assembly of citizens) constituted the Spartan government.

The historical figure of Lycurgus is shrouded in mystery, with no contemporary records of his life or reforms; much of what is known comes from later sources, such as Herodotus, Xenophon, and especially Plutarch, who lived centuries after the supposed time of Lycurgus. This has led some modern scholars to question the existence of Lycurgus as a single historical figure, suggesting instead that the name may have been a convenient label for a series of reforms developed over time by multiple leaders. In surviving ancient sources, he is first mentioned by the Greek writer Herodotus (5th century BCE), who claimed that the lawgiver belonged to Sparta’s Agiad house, and the Spartans of Herodotus' day claimed that Lycurgus’ reforms were inspired by the institutions of Crete. The historian Xenophon, writing in the first half of the 4th century BC, apparently believed that Lycurgus had founded Sparta’s institutions soon after the Dorians invaded Laconia (c. 1000 BC) and reduced the native Achaean population to the status of serfs, or helots.

Ancient historians, notably Plutarch in his Life of Lycurgus (part of the Parallel Lives series), have attributed several sayings and ideas to Lycurgus that reflect his philosophy and the Spartan ethos he purportedly shaped.

• Lycurgus is reputed to have introduced the idea of equal distribution of wealth and land among the Spartan citizens to eliminate envy and crime. He is said to have advocated for communal sharing, famously remarking on the importance of equality for social harmony, though the exact wording of such statements is not documented in surviving texts.
• According to Plutarch, Lycurgus believed that laws should be engraved not on tablets but in the hearts of citizens. This reflects the Spartan emphasis on oral tradition and living according to the laws and customs ingrained through education and social practice rather than relying on written statutes.
• Lycurgus is often quoted regarding the importance of the Agoge, the Spartan education system designed to produce disciplined, loyal, and physically fit citizens. Though specific quotes are not directly attributed to him, his philosophy underscored the belief in raising children as the collective responsibility of the state, with a focus on communal values over individual interests.
• Spartans were famous for their laconic wit, a style of speech that was brief yet impactful, believed to be encouraged by Lycurgus's own emphasis on pithiness and substance over verbosity. One apocryphal saying attributed to Lycurgus or reflecting his principles is the Spartan response to a threat: when told that the enemy was near and asking what they should do, the Spartan reply was, "Fight them," exemplifying the Spartan valor and preference for action over lengthy deliberation.