Hesiod

Hesiod (Ἡσίοδος, Hēsíodos; Hesiodus; /ˈhiːsiədəs/, 700s BCE) is generally considered to be the second-greatest Greek epic poet in history, after Homer. Hesiod's works are considered among the earliest examples of Greek literature, revelatory in their detail about archaic Greek life. Hesiod claimed to be born in Ascra (Ἄσκρα; Ascra; /ˈæskrə/), a small town in Boeotia (central Greece). According to his work Works and Days (Ἔργα καὶ Ἡμέραι, Érga kaì Hēmérai; Opera et Dies; /ˈɛrɡa kaɪ ˈheɪmɛraɪ/), Hesiod's father migrated from the Aeolian city of Cyme in Asia Minor to Greece. The poet describes himself as a farmer and shepherd and writes from the perspective of a resident of rural Greece. The mention of specific geographical locations, social conditions, and religious practices in his works provides some grounding in the historical world of 8th-century BCE Greece; yet, the lack of external contemporaneous sources verifying his life's details leaves room for uncertainty regarding the extent to which the biographical information presented in his poetry reflects his actual life.

Like Homer's works, Hesiod's were likely originally a part of an oral tradition. The transition to written form is believed to have occurred in the 8th to 7th centuries BCE, facilitated by the adoption of the Phoenician alphabet that replaced Linear B to transcribe the Greek language. The earliest manuscript evidence for Hesiod's works dates to the 6th century BCE, but the poems themselves were likely composed and transmitted orally before this. His main surviving works are Works and Days, and Theogony (Θεογονία, Theogonía; Theogonia; IPA: /θiˈɒɡəniə/); both are written in dactylic hexameter, as are Homer's epics.

Theogony

Theogony is a systematic account of the origins and genealogies of the Greek gods; it not only serves as a cosmogony but also as a foundational text for Greek mythology, offering explanations for the origins of the world and the relationships between the gods. Hesiod's portrayal of the gods and their origins provided a framework that was built upon by later Greek literature and mythology.

Theogony opens with a prologue invoking the Muses (Μοῦσαι, Moûsai; Musae; /ˈmjuːzaɪ/) and proceeds to the creation of the cosmos from the first entities: Chaos (Χάος, Cháos; Chaos; /ˈkeɪ.ɒs/), Gaia (Γαῖα, Gaîa; Terra; /ˈɡaɪ.ə/), Tartarus (Τάρταρος, Tártaros; Tartarus; /ˈtɑːrtərəs/), and Eros (Ἔρως, Érōs; Cupido; /ˈɛrɒs/). Chaos brings forth Erebus (Ἔρεβος, Érebos; Erebus; /ˈɛrəbəs/) and Nyx (Νύξ, Nýx; Nox; /nɪks/), while Gaia produces Uranus (Οὐρανός, Ouranós; Caelum; /ˈjʊərənəs/), the Mountains, and Pontus (Πόντος, Póntos; Pontus; /ˈpɒntəs/).

○ Gaia and Uranus' union produces the Titans (Τιτᾶνες, Titânes; Titani; /ˈtaɪtəniːz/), the Cyclopes (Κύκλωπες, Kýklōpes; Cyclopes; /ˈsaɪkloʊpiːz/), and the Hecatoncheires (Ἑκατόγχειρες, Hekatógkheires; Centimani; /hɛkəˈtɒŋkɪriːz/). Uranus' fear of being overthrown leads him to imprison his children in Tartarus, prompting Gaia to conspire with her youngest Titan son, Cronus (Κρόνος, Krónos; Saturnus; /ˈkroʊnəs/), who castrates Uranus, freeing the imprisoned entities and marking the end of Uranus' rule.

Cronus ascends to power but, haunted by a prophecy that he would be overthrown by his own son, swallows each of his children with Rhea (Ῥέα, Rhéa; Ops; /ˈriːə/) upon their birth. Rhea, seeking to save her youngest, Zeus (Ζεύς, Zeús; Iuppiter; /zuːs/) , hides him on Crete and tricks Cronus into swallowing a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes instead. Zeus grows in secret, eventually leading a rebellion against Cronus and the Titans, culminating in the Titanomachy (Τιτανομαχία, Titanomakhía; Titanomachia; /ˌtaɪtəˈnɒməkiə/), a ten-year war. With the help of the Cyclopes and Hecatoncheires, Zeus overthrows Cronus, imprisons the Titans in Tartarus, and establishes his rule over the cosmos.

Following his victory, Zeus allocates realms to his siblings: Poseidon (Ποσειδῶν, Poseidôn; Neptunus; /pəˈsaɪdən/) receives the sea, Hades (ᾍδης, Hádēs; Pluto; /ˈheɪdiːz/) the underworld, and Hestia (Ἑστία, Hestía; Vesta; /ˈhɛstiə/), along with Hera (Ἥρα, Hḗra; Iuno; /ˈhɛrə/), Demeter (Δημήτηρ, Dēmḗtēr; Ceres; /dɪˈmiːtər/), and others, receive various dominions.

The latter part of Theogony details the genealogies of various gods and goddesses, their offspring, and the intertwining of their tales, culminating in the births of more familiar deities such as Athena (Ἀθηνᾶ, Athēnâ; Minerva; /əˈθiːnə/), Apollo (Ἀπόλλων, Apóllōn; Apollo; /əˈpɒlən/), Artemis (Ἄρτεμις, Ártemis; Diana; /ˈɑːrtɪmɪs/), and Hermes (Ἑρμῆς, Hermês; Mercurius; /ˈhɜːrmiːz/), establishing the intricate web of relations that constitute the Olympian pantheon.

Works and Days

Works and Days is a didactic poem that combines agricultural advice with moral and practical precepts for life. It is addressed to Hesiod's brother, Perses (Πέρσης, Pérsēs; Perses; /ˈpɜːrsiːs/), and outlines the hard work necessary for successful farming, interspersed with allegorical tales and myths. The poem emphasizes justice and hard work as fundamental virtues, offering a glimpse into the values and daily life of ancient Greek society.

This poem also begins with an invocation to the Muses, establishing the poet's authority and divine inspiration. Hesiod laments the strife between him and his brother over their inheritance, criticizing Perses for using corrupt means to secure a larger share. This personal dispute serves as a springboard for the wider moral and practical instructions that follow. Hesiod recounts the myth of Prometheus (Προμηθεύς, Promētheús; Prometheus; /prəˈmiːθiəs/), who tricked Zeus and stole fire for humanity, leading to Zeus's retribution through the creation of Pandora (Πανδώρα, Pandṓra; Pandora; /pænˈdɔːrə/), the first woman, who opens a jar releasing all evils into the world, leaving only Hope inside.

Hesiod describes five Ages of Man: the Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic, and Iron Ages, each representing a decline in moral virtue and the conditions of human life. Hesiod places his own time in the Iron Age, characterized by toil and misery, where virtue is scarce, and men are prone to wickedness. The core of the poem provides detailed advice on agricultural practices, seafaring, and religious observances, aiming to guide Perses and the audience towards a life of hard work, justice, and piety. Hesiod emphasizes the importance of timing in farming and sailing, the virtues of justice and fairness in dealing with others, and the proper worship of the gods to ensure their favor.

• Golden Age - people lived in peace and harmony, without the need for labor or suffering. The earth provided food in abundance, and humans lived to a very old age but maintained a youthful appearance. They died as if overcome by sleep, living on as "guardian spirits" (daimones) upon the earth, benevolent and protecting. This age was under the rule of Cronus and is characterized by the absence of strife or toil. The inhabitants of this age did not experience the hardships of later generations.
• Silver Age - people in this age lived for one hundred years as children without aging, then suddenly grew old and succumbed quickly. They were less noble than the Golden Age and did not offer the gods the worship they deserved. The Silver Age saw humans becoming foolish and unable to restrain themselves from wrongdoing against one another, leading to their demise. Zeus destroyed this race for failing to honor the gods.
• Bronze Age - people were hard and warlike, made of bronze, and used bronze weapons and tools. Their dwellings were of bronze, and they were consumed by their own violent tendencies. This age ended when these aggressive humans killed one another off, leading to their descent into the underworld, leaving no memory of their existence behind.
• Heroic Age - nobler and more righteous, populated by heroes who would later be worshipped as demigods. It was an era of noble deeds and epic battles, such as those recounted in the stories of the Trojan War and the voyages of Jason and the Argonauts. Heroes of this age engaged in great deeds and quests; despite their noble nature, many heroes met tragic ends, either dying heroically in battle or being punished by the gods for their hubris. Those who died were said to dwell in the Isles of the Blessed (Elysium), enjoying a blissful existence after death.
• Iron Age - Hesiod's own time, marked by toil and misery; humans live in an age of labor, suffering, and injustice, where might often makes right, and the gods no longer walk openly among humanity. In this age, humans must work hard to survive, and virtue is rare. Justice and honesty are often not rewarded in this harsh and corrupt world. Hesiod laments the hardships of the Iron Age, expressing a wish that he were not part of this generation.

A significant portion of the poem is dedicated to a calendar of auspicious and inauspicious days for various activities, from sowing and reaping to marrying and governing; it blends practical agricultural knowledge with religious observance, highlighting the integration of work, religion, and social life in ancient Greek society.

Throughout, Hesiod stresses the importance of dikē (δίκη, justice) as the foundation of social order and prosperity. He portrays Zeus as the ultimate arbiter of justice, who punishes the wicked and rewards the righteous.